Explain the relationship between mental health problems and society Essay

The way in which the public perceive people with mental health impairments is constantly being called into question. The relationship between mental health and social problems are prominent in day to day life, but can be experienced and viewed on varying levels-this is dependent on individuals. Stigma and discrimination stem from personal ignorance and fear, whether the person is not well educated enough to understand illness or is ignorant to it; realistically the ignorance is more likely to cause social problems on an individual basis. The public needs a better awareness and understanding of what mental health is and how it affects people and the support network around them. (Angermeyer and Matschinger 2005) Argue that members of the public have limited knowledge of mental illness and what they do know can sometimes be entirely incorrect. (Thornicroft 2006) States that the public believe having a mental illness reduces intelligence and the ability to make decisions and that some people still believe schizophrenia means having a split personality. In addition, (Thornicroft 2006) say it is common for the public to not grasp the difference between mental illness and learning disabilities. This can lead to common misconceptions in society. (McLeod, S. A 2008). Social Roles and Social Norms – Simply Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-roles.htmlthere) There are many ways that people can influence our behavior, but perhaps one of the most important is that the presence of others seems to set up expectations. Social Norms are unwritten rules about how to behave. They provide us with an expected idea of how to behave in a particular social group or culture. Because some people don’t fit into this social norm (Time to Change. 2008. Stigma Shout[online] available at: http://www.time-to-change.org.uk/research-reports-publications [accessed 30th September 2013) state 9 out of 10 people with mental health problems have been affected by stigma and discrimination and more than two thirds have stopped doing things they wanted to do because of stigma. Having aspirations and wanting to be in employment gives a certain level of self-esteem and people are generally in a much better position to build  social relationships and contribute to society, this in turn helps; the community, the nation, and fellow man. Still people with severe mental health problems have a lower rate of employment than any other disabled group, but are proved more likely than any other group with disabilities to want to have a job and desire work. Up to 90% of people suffering from mental health issues say they would like to work this is compared to 52% of disabled people (Stanley K, Maxwell D 2004. Fit for purpose London: IPPR). Campaigners such as ‘Time to Change’ are reaching out to the media particularly through social networking to make people more aware and be more open to recognising early signs of mental health problems, this will in turn help reduce the number of unreported mental health problems in the UK. The WHO Mental Health Survey Consortium (2004) previously reported that up to 85% of people with serious mental disorders did not receive treatment in a one year period (World Health Organisation – Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organisation world mental health surveys 2004. 291:p. 2581-2590). Anti-stigma campaigns can help build a better relationship between mental health and social problems in a positive manner. Direct social contact with people with mental health problems is without doubt the most effective way to change public attitudes so the greater the awareness the higher chance of people leaving personal prejudices behind. 77% of adults believe that the media does not do a good job in educating people about mental illness (Priory Group 2007. Crying shame. Leatherhead, Surrey: Priory Group). There are many different perspectives and understandings of mental health and opinions vary significantly even when different people are presented with the same situation involving someone apparently experiencing mental distress (Dr Colin King, Model Values 2009 cited Colombo et al, 2003a and b). Historically, the dominant model for explanations of mental disorders has been the ‘Medical Model’ which treats mental disorders in the same way as a physical cause and assumes the mental illness comes about primarily as a result of biochemical, genetic deviations, chemical imbalances or trauma which give rise to symptoms. These symptoms are classified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), which then leads to a  diagnoses and drugs prescribed or in more serious cases electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) or psychosurgery are used; the latter being the very last resort if other treatments prove to fail. With this model the treatment can be fast and therefore empowering people to live the life they have desired without having to stay in care homes or hospitals, though it is a double edged sword because as with all drugs there are side effects; it is known for ECT treatment to cause memory loss. Taking antipsychotic pills can cause weight gain and increase the chance of developing diabetes among other side effects. The Medical Model is alluring because it is succinct, tangible, and easily understandable and is in accordance with a scientific method which relies on objective and measurable observation. There have been three types of studies to provide evidence to support this view which have been family, twin studies- and adoption studies. The ‘Social Model’ looks at other sociological reasons to possible causes of mental health and is based on an understanding of the complexity of human health and well-being and supports the social networks of people who are vulnerable and frail. It takes the wider view that the ability to undertake such activities is limited by social barriers and shows the limitation of activity is not caused by impairments but a consequence of social barriers, this shifts the emphasis towards those aspects of the world that can be adapted and changed (The Social Model of Disability and The Disability Discrimination Act). The management of the problem requires social action and is the collective responsibility of society at large to make the environmental modifications necessary for the full participation of people with disabilities in all areas of social life. The issue is both cultural and ideological and requires individual, community and a large scale social change and from this perspective, equal access for someone with an impairment or disability is a human rights issue of major concern. Social model thinking has important implications for the education system too, and particularly primary and secondary schools. Prejudiced attitudes toward disabled people and all minority groups are not innate. They are learned through contact with the prejudice and ignorance of others. To conclude mental health and social problems can be non-excitant if society  focuses on the two dominant models ‘Medical & Social’. The two are the perfect example of a lasting relationship, intertwined with one another. Without the social model stigma and discrimination create barriers and without the medical model treatment would not be diagnosed and treated. With the two models society can empower individuals to live the life they desire, strive for and deserve. People with mental health problems should be safe guarded and encouraged to participate in their community regardless of their age, race, or disability. If society tackles problems with mental health and social problems people face the world would be a better and more positive place to live.

Minoan Palaces in Crete

The main palace sites in Minoan Crete include those in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Gournia, and Zakros. The palace at Knossos is the largest, with an area of approximately twenty two thousand square metres. It is located in the valley of the Kairatos River and said to be where King Minos of Ancient Greek mythology lived. It is estimated that the palace of Knossos was palace of Phaistos is the second largest and located on a low hill in the Messara plain. Just outside the town of Malia, which is thirty seven kilometres east of Heraklion, is the third largest Minoan palace. There is also a palace in the town of Gournia which is located on a small hill near the Gulf of Mirabello. Finally, a Minoan palace is located in Zakros, on the east coast of Crete and south of Palaikastro. The palace of Knossos was the largest one of the Minoan empire. Although its actual functions are still not certain, it is thought that the palace was used for both ceremonial and administrative purposes. After it was first built, it is believed to have been destroyed by an earthquake in around 1700 B. C. E and then rebuilt in approximately 1450 B. C. E. Although it is difficult to be sure about the details of the palace, the evidence that does exist suggests that it was essential to the Minoan society. Floor Plan of Knossos Palace Sir Arthur Evans Sir Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist, was the first to excavate the palace site at Knossos. He was born in 1851 and graduated from both Oxford and Gottingen universities. His discoveries were published in â€Å"Palace of Minosâ₠¬  and he was knighted in 1911 for his archaeological work. Evans perished in 1941. The excavation of the palace at Knossos and its surrounding area began in 1900 and continued to some degree for over three decades. Evans used a large sum of his own money on the project. Evans employed many local labourers to join his team and within a few months, had discovered a large amount of what he called â€Å"the Palace of Minos†. His main assistants were Theodore Fyfe and Duncan Mackenzie. Based on his findings at the site, Evans concluded that there must have been a people that existed before those previously found to have lived on Crete. The palace that Evans was in the process of excavating seemed to him to resemble the labyrinth built by King Minos of Greek mythology, and so he named the people that once inhabited the palace and its surroundings ‘the Minoans’ – after King Minos. By 1903, a large amount of the palace had been excavated. During this process, Evans and his team had found many art works and tablets displaying examples of writing, which we now refer to as Linear A. These artefacts revealed a lot about Minoan society, and lead Evans to make many of the assumptions, or ‘educated guesses’, that he did about their civilisation. The methods of restoration of artefacts found in the palace at Knossos by Evans have been questioned since his work at the site. The pioneer excavator used concrete to reconstruct areas and objects of the site, and people were employed to recreate the work on the frescoes found in and around the palace. These restorations are said to have more to do with the imagination of Evans and his team rather than the accurate works of the Minoans. Evans replaced missing fragments of frescoes and other parts of the constructions of the palace with paint and other materials that are considered by many to be inaccurate. His methods have been widely criticised as it is considered detrimental to install materials that are foreign to genuine Minoan architecture, however, he is still recognised as an important figure who contributed a great deal to our knowledge about the Minoan society. The Palace of Knossos Today Today, although the original condition of the palace site at Knossos has been maintained relatively well, there are also modern influences on the area. Located around the site are a gift shop and parking lot as well as a bronze bust of Sir Arthur Evans. Obviously, the condition of the palace itself has decreased since Minoan times due to weathering and other damage, but displays of Minoan culture are still available at the site in various forms. Visitors to the site today are able to make their way around its many rooms via its many corridors and passageways. They are also about to admire the Minoan frescoes that are still displayed at the site. Rooms and Areas of the Palace The palace has several main areas, including the east and west wings and the central court. The palace was built with an estimated one thousand and three hundred rooms and is believed by many to be the actual labyrinth mentioned in the Greek myth, â€Å"the Legend of the Minotaur†. The palace is believed to serve multiple purposes with its many rooms. It was probably an area for storage, crafting, administration, archive keeping and ceremonies as well as sleeping quarters for any royal members of society as well as possible others. The palace has both a north and south entrance and includes several staircases. In the east wing were the domestic quarters, which included apartments where any royalty would probably have lived. It also has shrines and art works as well as reception halls and luxurious bathrooms, and underneath it are storerooms that once housed many treasures and elaborate tombs. Bright murals decorate the areas that are thought to have been inhabited by Minoan royalty. There was also a room in the east wing of the palace in which a seemingly majestic chair stood, thus named the ‘throne room’ by Sir Arthur Evans. In the west wing were the storerooms where the produce of the Minoan trade system was kept. The palace of Knossos was a central location for the Minoan people to store their goods. The central court of the palace was probably used for ceremonial purposes. Records of trade undertaken by Minoans from Knossos were also archived in the palace. The palace of Knossos was probably larger than Minoan palaces found in other areas because the town of Knossos was likely to be the capital of Crete at the time. This means that the palace probably needed the space for all the storage and administration that a capital of an empire must have. The size of the palace is also a symbol of the grand nature of the city of Knossos. Knossos is also thought to have been the most densely populated town, with approximately one hundred thousand people living there. This population is extremely large compared to other ancient towns. Frescoes of the Palace The palace of Knossos is home to a huge spectrum of Minoan art, and a significant amount of works have been found there. Archaeologists think that these frescoes depict Minoan people and the animals, plants and geographical features that they were familiar with, as well as scenes such as sporting events, religious festivals and ceremonies. People are shown going about activities such as fishing and gathering on the frescoes. These people are often youthful adults and rarely children or elders. Women in the frescoes were usually painted to have lighter skin, whereas male figures had skin of a ruddier colour. Military activity is generally not displayed on Minoan frescoes, which sets the Minoan artists apart from others who existed during their time and after it. Perhaps the most famous fresco found in the Knossos palace is the Toreador Fresco, which depicts Minoan people riding a bull like creature in what appears to be some kind of sporting event. These frescoes were not in their original condition by the time archaeologists were able to excavate them due to centuries of weathering and other damage. Despite this, archaeologists and historians have a good idea of what the frescoes are supposed to depict because they are able to use the incomplete images on the works to determine what they may have looked like originally and to restore the art to this state. The importance of the Palace of Knossos The palace of Knossos is important to historians because it provides them with a vast amount of information about Minoan society and what life was like for people living on Crete during the Bronze Age. Much of what is known about the Minoan people is due to the artefacts, architecture and other evidence found in the palace site of Knossos. Frescoes provide insight into the people of Crete during Minoan times and their appearance, clothes, habits, rituals and abilities. Tablets found in the palace inform historians that Minoan people were literate and had a writing system, although its symbols cannot be deciphered today. The general layout and architecture of the palace provides knowledge regarding the Minoans’ ability to build structures, and what methods, techniques and materials they used to do so. The palace also provides evidence supporting the idea that there was Minoan royalty, although this theory is not confirmed. Overall, the palace at Knossos is of great importance to historians because without it, their knowledge of Minoan society would be significantly more limited than it is now.

Expected U.S. GDP growth rate going forward Essay

This paper examines the expected growth of the United State’s GDP.   It looks at how the economy is performing, especially after the recent credit crunch that had effects on the whole world’s economy. The paper looks at GDP growth rates expected at different rates for specific periods of time.   According to the World Bank, the economy of the United States of America is the largest amongst the world’s economies. Expected U.S. GDP growth rate going forward Economic growth is a situation in which the value of goods and services produced by a given economy. It is measured in terms of GDP where it is taken as the percentage rate of rise in real GDP.   Growth is an economic parameter that is presented in real terms; this means that it varies according to adjustments in inflation-terms so that the effects of inflation on product prices can be netted out (Lipsey, et al, 2007).   The average living standards of citizens of a nation are measured using real GDP per capita calculated as the total GDP divided by the total population in an economy. Considering the recent economic activities, the economy was on a go slow during the second quarter due to the fact that consumer spending was adversely affected by job scarcity. This condition left the recovery to almost solely dependent on the flow in commercial investments. According to updates of July 28, 2010 by Economic Outlook Index, it predicted that the economy will experience growth in real Gross Domestic Product at an annualized growth rate based on six month period. However, after the end of stimulus initiatives, it is expected to slow to about 2.5% by the end of December 2010. This situation will be greatly influenced by the seemingly perpetual high unemployment, the feeble housing market, high debt and rigid credit. The GDP of U.S., and of course other economies, can be determined either by finding total demand in the economy, total production or total spending. Using total spending, it is projected that during 2010 the total spending will be $6413 billion. This represents about $378 billion or 6.26% increase based on the previous projections of 2009. This is also expected to continue rising in the subsequent years. For instance, the total spending is expected to hit $6713 billion and $6832 billion in 2011 and 2012 respectively (U.S.A. Government spending, 2010). The implication of this is that the U.S. GDP can be expected to grow at the rate 6.26% in 2010, 4.68% in 2011; this represents a drop from the preceding period and in 2012 it is expected to grow at the rate of 1.77% (U.S.A. Government spending, 2010). This means that even though the real GDP is expected to grow between 2010 and 2010, it will happen at a reducing rate. Even, So, some of drivers of the projected growth include the expected increase in employment for the period running from 2008 to 2018 in which   unemployment is to reduce by 10.1% and increased government expenditures amongst other significant economic factors. It is therefore important to note that there is no cause for alarm amongst the business community and the investors. Conclusion The recent credit crunch which started in 2007 affected the U.S.A economy alongside other major world economies hence sending ripple effects to the developing economies (International Monetary Fund, 2008). More jobs were lost during the period, the prices in the real estate market experienced high inflations and generally the cost of basic consumer products went up. However, through stimulus strategy and other economic interventions has seen the U.S GDP growth start increasing. This is due to projected growth in total expenditures and commercial activities within the U.S. economy. It is also expected that unemployment rate will go down and hence have a positive effects on total expenditures.

Human and Animal Cloning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human and Animal Cloning - Essay Example The first thought of cloning and human cloning came about when the first Scottish scientist cloned a sheep named, 'Dolly' (Human Genome Project Information 2004). However, there were theorizations that the cloning of the sheep was beyond logical realms of ethics and even though it brought about worldwide interest, complications also arose. It is widely recognized how often science will go to bring about new changes and within the area of cloning there are a myriad of beliefs and opinions that claim the use of this science goes against the normal balance of nature. For example: science clones a sheep and takes another step beyond that to actually contemplating cloning a human being. Too many people of religious stature, cloning is just morally wrong but scientists refuse to listen, always reiterating what they have always stated. The ideas that are formed through science and the discoveries stemming from those ideas are always done with the best interest of human kind in utmost consid eration. That is well and good but the development of nuclear technology and other weaponry also stated the same type of mental way of thinking and it has cost many lives in the process.

Health issues(snoking) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health issues(snoking) - Essay Example They can make big changes in the body and can terribly affect the health of a person. Tobacco smoke contains more than 4000 poisonous chemicals including nitrogen oxides, hydrogen cyanide, tar, ammonia, metals, and various radio active compounds. Smoking increases the heart rate of the smoker and can increase the blood pressure also (Gould 2000). Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide which will block the necessary oxygen to the body tissues. Tobacco companies add ammonia into cigarettes which makes the brain absorb nicotine more vigorously than how it normally absorbs. Additives in the cigarettes increase the ‘free’ nicotine level of the cigarette which will enhance the addictive nature of the nicotine (Eysenck 1999). Smoking tobacco, whatever form it may appear (cigarettes, pipes or cigars), invites emphysema, lung cancers and similar respiratory sicknesses. The reason for almost 90 percent of lung cancer cases is nothing but smoking. Emphysema is a lung disease which is caused by chronic smoking. Stomach ulcers as well as acid reflux can also appear in smokers. Smoking will decay and stain teeth also. Tobacco also makes mouth and gum cancers. Smoking can be a reason for bad breath also. Smoking habit can make the charm of the face diminish and will invite wrinkles in the skin. Lips can turn black by chronic smoking habits. Chronic smoking habit also brings money and time loss. Smokers will have poor athletic ability compared to others. Smoking by pregnant women causes terrible consequences in newborn ladies (Oaks 2001). Babies born from smoking ladies will have various health problems including insufficient weight and asthma problems (Hoeger & Hoeger  2005). Smoking also results in heart dise ases (Bennett 1993). One of the most common problems associated with smokers is respiratory problem. Passive smokers also experience similar health problems as smokers do. Kids who are exposed to smoking will have ear infections and are

Advertisement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advertisement - Essay Example In this advertisement, the target audience is both sexes. According to the photographs in the ad, we can clearly see that both these people are young, so the advertisement is meant for the young generation. Both of them are also very good-looking, even though they are wearing plain clothing, which helps to focus more on their beauty. They are both making physical, sensual contact with each other, which shows the supposed effect of the fragrance. Also, we can see that the involvement of both sexes shows us that the product at hand should be used by both the male and the female population. On the other hand, it’s clearly evident that the advertisement, which involves introducing a new product into the market, is meant to call attention to the product so that the target audience can be attracted to it, like it and at the end of the day purchase the product. The person viewing the advertisement is made aware that the fragrance is new because only new items usually end up in magazines, since those are the ones that the companies feel an audience would like. The advertisement also clearly states that the product is new, prompting the audience to want to give this new fragrance a try. Through this presentation, the audience is enticed to try the effect of the fragrance for themselves. Similarly, there is a message in this advertisement that is somehow overt and has been used to attract the probable buyers of the fragrance. In this case, the fragrance is meant to make the buyer feel good and also make the person be more desirable to others. According to the press release, â€Å"CK One is about connecting with the group, CK Be is about connecting with yourself, and CK IN2U is all about connecting with another person† (Osmoz). In a more hidden meaning which acts as a reinforcement to the previous message, the user of the perfume will be more

The Discourse of a learner-centered classroom Essay

The Discourse of a learner-centered classroom - Essay Example CLT was initiated in the 1970's and reflected a trend that dismissed theories which focused on rote learning and the teaching of discrete points of grammar within a decontextualised environment. The CLT approach instead oriented toward meaningful communication as an interactive process, and this approach has been emphasised for inclusion within ELT course-books. This paper will critically review the manner in which reading and writing skills are presented in the ELT course-book Fast Track, Book 5 (Teacher' Book) (EF Education, 2001). Firstly a summary of the content of Fast Track will be presented. Secondly, reading and writing content will be evaluated with regard to group activities, culture, and meaningful communication. Finally, a conclusion shall synthesise the main arguments of the paper. The conclusion will also demonstrate how Fast Track fails to meet the requirements to provide comprehensive and progressive CLT learning experiences for students of English as a second language. The ELT course-book Fast Track, Book 5 (Teacher' Book) is a 195 page soft covered text. The book is divided into 7 Units; Getting to Know You, Going Places; Friendship; The Media; Men and Women; Thinking Outside the Box; and Working World. Included with the text is a Tape for "Listening Exercises," ant an Appendix section provides "Tape Transcripts." Skill focus icons are used for each Exercise; An "Open Mouth" represents exercises that focus on speaking skills An "Open Book" stands for exercises that develop reading comprehension skills and vocabulary. An "Ear" symbolises exercises to develop listening comprehension skills. An "A+B+C+" icon stands for exercises that build vocabulary around a specific lexical group. A "Verb Subject" symbol represents exercises that focus on a grammatical point. A "Pen" stands for exercises that develop writing skills. A "Brain" symbolises exercises that develop learning skills and strategies. "Reading and Writing Exercises" are presented within each Unit. The Teacher is trained using Teachers Notes in the 1" margin of each page. For each Unit Teachers Notes, there is a brief paragraph of about 33 words, to describe the Unit and the Unit goals to the Teacher. With regard to reading and writing skills for the students, the Teacher's Notes provide details about topics such as the point of the reading exercises, as well as about grammar, verbs, adjectives, and present perfect tense. A Unit Summary is provided at the end of each Unit, to explain grammar used in the exercises, to provide points on using articles, or to provide solutions to exercises with puzzles. The Teacher's text has the answers provided for each exercise in orange font. Culture & Reading and Writing Skills The learning requirements of English as a second language students is of critical necessity for students who intend to live, be educated, socialise and work in English speaking countries. Language skills affect learning ability, and subsequently the student's concept of themselves, their formation of interpersonal relationships, and their ability to

Junk 'mail' - nuisance or opportunity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Junk 'mail' - nuisance or opportunity - Essay Example For example, it would not make sense to send direct mailings in a mass strategy when there is only a fraction of the population with the cash resources to buy your product. At the leadership level, direct mail can be a disadvantage if the business does not have a well-trained and knowledgeable marketing staff able to ensure the information is targeted correctly. A recent study identified that many consumers would not even bother to open a piece of direct mail if they noticed an obvious mistake (McLuhan, 2008). This would require the company to closely monitor issues of editing and content when developing the direct mail literature. Sometimes these are sent out to third party printers, which make error correction and checking prior to mailing very important. Even in the electronic mail environment, if the information has grammatical errors it can be a serious disadvantage to company reputation. This is especially true considering that three quarters of all consumers surveyed said they would not even open the junk mail. There are advantages to junk mail, however, including growth in sales coming from catalogues. â€Å"The catalogue is seen as something of a renaissance marketing tool† which generated sales of over  £3.6 billion in 2004 (Marketing Week, 2005, p.37). This means that there are consumers who are attracted by the look and pictures of catalogues or they simply find them to be convenient methods to order merchandise. For the older consumer who might be intimidated by the online environment, catalogues sent to this group will likely have more sales results. Growth in the Internet across the world continues to climb as nations become more developed and have better electronic infrastructures. With more people online, this represents more marketing opportunity to reach more audiences and find more sales growth. Even

Three year strategic digital marketing plan Essay

Three year strategic digital marketing plan - Essay Example g the fact that Gap 360 is a relatively new company in this market, the success achieved by the company in its first and second year of trading is noteworthy. Having enjoyed a successful stint over the past two years, the company should aim to achieve a higher ground that provides robust foundation to become an undisputed leader in the market. In order to be able to reach the pinnacle in this market, Gap 360 must aim to attain a higher customer satisfaction index. This is precisely because a widening base of satisfied customers will serve as a sustainable source of profit for the independent travel service provider. However, the objective of higher customer satisfaction level can only be achieved if the company is able to increase its base of potential passengers which in actuality is the second objective that is specific to the requirement of the company. The objectives are very closely associated to each as one can only be attained if the other is accomplished. The fact can be evid enced with the third objective of the company which is to widen its products and service offerings (in terms of increasing number of destinations and types of trips) within five years of its launch. By doing so the company endeavours to attract greater number of passengers which in turn will provide them with the opportunity to offer superior quality services and hence, increase their customer base to a further level. Measureable: Gap 360 has to focus on increasing the amount of bookings done every year. In addition to that, they will also have to implement appropriate strategies in order to attain growth in the level of repeat sales per annum. As far as measurability of this objective is concerned, a target of 11,000 booking has been set which is to be achieved by 2016. On the other hand, a measurable target of 10% of the total bookings has been placed for repeat sales. Attainable: Given the size of the market in UK, the target that has been set in the section above is attainable.

Modern Microecon, Consumer Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modern Microecon, Consumer Theory - Essay Example In raw economic terms, utility is a measure of consumer satisfaction, that is, how much satisfaction a consumer derives from the consumption of a good or a service. Budget constraint on the other hand represents the combination of goods or services an individual can consume or purchase in consideration to given prices with his or her limited income. Combining the two concepts forms the foundation of consumer theory. The utility theory provides a methodological framework whereby usually, all individuals, organizations and firms evaluate given options. Utility is a term used to describe the satisfaction that each of the given options provide to the one making the decision. Hence, the basis of the utility theory is that each individual will choose that option which tends to maximize utility, working on what is called the ‘maximization principle’. This principle states that the most desirable choice is the one with the highest level of satisfaction. However, while making the se decisions, the individual must also consider his income earned along with the respective prices of the goods and services in question. ... Total utility continuously rises as consumption increases. This rise becomes smaller as more units of a product are consumed, it can also decline after a certain level of consumption. On the other hand, marginal utility measures the change in consumption benefit as a result of consuming one more or one less unit of a product. In other words, marginal utility tracks the change in total utility as the number of units consumed changes. The behavior of marginal utility is such that it tends to fall continuously as consumption of a product increases. This is because the first few units consumed of a product provide a higher level of satisfaction than the later few. For example, the first drink of water is worth a lot more to a thirsty individual than his seventh one. For a consumer to be in equilibrium certain conditions need to be met. The consumers are assumed to be rational in their decision whereby they aim to maximize the utility derived from the consumption of any product. It is als o assumed that consumers have limited incomes and that the value of utility can be quantified in monetary terms. The equi-marginal principle states that a consumer will be in equilibrium if it is not possible to switch expenditure from good X in favour of good Y to achieve an increase in total utility. In other word this principle is satisfied when the marginal utility of every dollar spent on a good is equal to the price paid for that good. If a basket of goods is in question, an individual will continue to alter the mix of consumption of the products until the marginal utility of a dollar spent on each of the goods is equal. Therefore, the equilibrium principle can be expressed as MUx/Px=MUy/Py, where MU is the marginal utility and P is the price of the good. Consumer

Concrete shelters Essay Example for Free

Concrete shelters Essay Every human being has their own needs in their life either from the nature of their personal necessity or merely wants. In this aspect, these necessities in the human life were actually needed fro the sake of sustenance and the general aspect of the survival of their own existence. In the society of humankind, each individual needs varies depending on the personal views and values of the actual person involved in it and how his or her perspective in life relate to it. In this aspect, one of the considered most important necessity in the life is the shelter of each individual. This shelter can either take the natural or concrete form or the abstract one relying solely on the view of the particular individual involved. Concrete shelters are material manifestations of the word relating to the house or constructed unit meant for personal or the family’s protection. From this protection, people derive comfort and security from their concrete houses with its sturdy and reliable walls, secure roofs and doors denoting privacy and security. On the other hand, abstract homes are the ones that take a more personal view regarding the concept of home. In this aspect, people seek comfort, love and compassion in each of their houses where they desire to feel caring and nurturing from the people they share their home with. Families, marital couples, friends and relative share their homes with each other to satisfy their needs for emotional bonding, social relationship and to incite and receive love form one another thus satisfying their desire for establishing their personal abstract homes. These two definitions often come in contrast with other wherein actual modern homes commonly lack one aspect. However, dwellings of any sort that satisfy both of the said definitions are the ones that are considered indeed perfect homes for the society. Thus, each person has his or her personal needs and preferences in a home they wish to live and be comfortable with. In this same aspect that this writer also has his own requirements for a home which he specifically require as needed foundation of his preferred home. Two of these things are the sense of security in both direct physical manifestations and personal aspect and the sense of emotional stability. First, the sense of security is indeed desired by each individuals not only this writer but also practically all of the people in the society. Homes are basically structural unit to secure people of their individuality and privacy as human beings apart from their society. In addition, homes are also security foundation of the people from adverse forces of nature as human beings struggle for their survival. Second is the need for the comfort and love in one’s home that is why people only invite other individuals who they are comfortable with in their homes. Homes are meant for strengthening and establishing the foundations of human relationship for later years thus, individuals in their homes must complement and respect each other as one of the prime necessity of their home. In this aspect that people resort to different ways and approaches implement their necessities for their own personal homes. Some people concoct different architectural strategy to achieve feats for strengthening and securing their homes against forces of nature and forces of the society. To achieve their sense of security that they can rely on, society has obviously developed their standards for home construction and improvement resulting to modern structural design of present houses. Indeed, modern concrete houses are much stronger compare to primitive huts and caves for the security comfort of the society. On the hand, homes of the present are also able to preserve the emotional stability of the relationships of their tenants. For this writer, emotional understanding is a prime necessity in his home that only people he is comfortable or with a relationship are the ones welcome or have access to his home. He indeed considering his dwelling a personal sanctuary for his emotions and personal relaxation that it is private to the society in general but a comfortable place for his loved ones. Thus, each individual has their own personal requirements for their homes and that they tirelessly to acquire for their own satisfaction. In that very own aspect that the author Linda Hogan wrote his essay entitled Dwellings as she elaborate her personal views regarding the aspect of personal homes. In her literary work, she explicitly presented that home starts with simple structural unit to live in. Gradually, people starts to develop their own homes to satisfy their personal needs and wants such as emotional companion and love thus they establish relationships and dwell in their homes. This is then followed by developing their homes as a couple where they are comfortable with their own personal needs and with this, modern homes are then created originating from their primitive predecessors. At first, they was no doors but only simple openings and then people starts to realize they need it and then apply it in their homes until develop as it is. Thus, the development of the structural and conceptual aspect of homes are directly related to the needs and wants of the people dwelling in it. In addition, Hogan stated in her essay that homes are also structural units for the personal side of each individual where they can share emotions and love with each other. Consider her example of the different structural units that are simple yet they house to different kinds of animals where they all struggle for their survival. They all consider this unit as their home indeed as this simple structure give them all of the necessity they need. On top of that, the aspect of their family unity give these animals a perfect reason why they should stay regardless of the simplicity of the structure. In like manner that some people also consider their simple houses as their perfect home as here they found the elements of love, care and passion each individual seek in the society. Indeed, homes are not a matter of structural feat or architectural design but a sanctuary satisfying the personal needs of the individual particularly with his or her personality as a human being.

Banjo Paterson Biography Essay Example for Free

Banjo Paterson Biography Essay Andrew Barton Banjo Paterson was best known as a poet and author. He became the most popular poet in Australia. He was best known for the ballad Waltzing Matilda and his book called The Man from Snowy River and Other Verses. Banjo Paterson was born at Narrambla in New South Wales. He was the eldest of seven children. Banjo had one brother and five sisters. His parents names are Andrew Bogle and Rose Isabella Paterson, he had a Scottish heritage. Banjos parents were graziers on the Illalong station in the Yass Districts. Most of Banjos life was spent on the family property, but when he was ten his parents sent him to live with with his grandmother in Sydney, for educational reasons. Banjo Paterson was an accomplished equestrian (horse rider), and polo player. When Banjo was young he was educated by a governess. Once he was able to ride a pony he went to a bush school in Bingalong. When he was living with his grandmother in 1874 he was sent to Sydney Grammar School and in 1875 he shared the Junior Knox Prize with George Rich. He completed school aged 16 and enrolled at a university but failed the examination. When Banjo Paterson was a law student he began to write verses. His first poem that he wrote was called El Mahdi to the Australian Troops, which was published in the Bulletin in February 1885. He later adopted the pen name The Banjo, which was taken from the name of a station racehorse that was owned by his family. He later became one of the Bulletin writers and artists. Angus and Robertson published Banjo Patersons first book, The Man from Snowy River and Other Verses, in October 1895. The launch of this book was very successful, it sold over 7000 copies in just a couple of months. While in Queensland on a holiday late 1895, Banjo stayed with friends. This is where he wrote Waltzing Matilda which later became one of Australias best known folk song. Banjo Paterson travelled to South Africa in 1899 as a special war correspondent for the Sydney Morning Herald during the Boer War. In 1903 Banjo was appointed editor of the evening news, he held that position until 1908 when he resigned. In 1903 Banjo married Alice Walker in Tenterfield. Their first home together was in Queen Street, Woollahra. They had two children, they were named Grace and Hugh. Grace was born in 1904 and Hugh was born in 1906. During World War One Banjo sailed to Europe hoping for an appointment as war corespondent. Instead he was an ambulance driver to the Australian Voluntary Hospital in France. He was eventually promoted to Major. When Banjo was back in Australia he went back to journalism and retired in 1930. Later in 1939 Banjo was created CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire). He passed away due to a heart condition on the 5th of February 1941, it was just 12 days before his 77th birthday. His reputation as the principle folk poet of Australia was secure, Banjos work included seven volumes of poetry. Banjo Paterson was not only known for Waltzing Matilda, but also for his attempt to improve the lives of his fellow Australians by exposing their hardships to the public. Banjos role in Australian culture has been celebrated by placing his face on the $10 note. His poems are still being published and are still selling.

Single Stage to Orbit (SSTO) Propulsion System

Single Stage to Orbit (SSTO) Propulsion System This paper discusses the relevant selection criteria for a single stage to orbit (SSTO) propulsion system and then reviews the characteristics of the typical engine types proposed for this role against these criteria. The engine types considered include Hydrogen/Oxygen (H2/O2) rockets, Scramjets, Turbojets, Turborockets and Liquid Air Cycle Engines. In the authors opinion none of the above engines are able to meet all the necessary criteria for an SSTO propulsion system simultaneously. However by selecting appropriate features from each it is possible to synthesise a new class of engines which are specifically optimised for the SSTO role. The resulting engines employ precooling of the airstream and a high internal pressure ratio to enable a relatively conventional high pressure rocket combustion chamber to be utilised in both airbreathing and rocket modes. This results in a significant mass saving with installation advantages which by careful design of the cycle thermodynamics enable s the full potential of airbreathing to be realised. The SABRE engine which powers the SKYLON launch vehicle is an example of one of these so called Precooled hybrid airbreathing rocket engines and the conceptual reasoning which leads to its main design parameters are described in the paper. Keywords: Reusable launchers, SABRE, SKYLON, SSTO 1.Introduction Several organisations world-wide are studying the technical and commercial feasibility of reusable SSTO launchers. This new class of vehicles appear to offer the tantalising prospect of greatly reduced recurring costs and increased reliability compared to existing expendable vehicles. However achieving this breakthrough is a difficult task since the attainment of orbital velocity in a re-entry capable single stage demands extraordinary propulsive performance. Most studies to date have focused on high pressure hydrogen/oxygen (H2/O2) rocket engines for the primary propulsion of such vehicles. However it is the authors opinion that despite recent advances in materials technology such an approach is not destined to succeed, due to the relatively low specific impulse of this type of propulsion. Airbreathing engines offer a possible route forward with their intrinsically higher specific impulse. However their low thrust/weight ratio, limited Mach number range and high dynamic pressure trajectory have in the past cancelled any theoretical advantage. By design review of the relevant characteristics of both rockets and airbreathing engines this paper sets out the rationale for the selection of deeply precooled hybrid airbreathing rocket engines for the main propulsion system of SSTO launchers as exemplified by the SKYLON vehicle [1]. 2. Propulsion Candidates This paper will only consider those engine types which would result in politically and environmentally acceptable vehicles. Therefore engines employing nuclear reactions (eg: onboard fission reactors or external nuclear pulse) and chemical engines with toxic exhausts (eg: fluorine/oxygen) will be excluded. The candidate engines can be split into two broad groups, namely pure rockets and engines with an airbreathing component. Since none of the airbreathers are capable of accelerating an SSTO vehicle all the way to orbital velocity, a practical vehicle will always have an onboard rocket engine to complete the ascent. Therefore the use of airbreathing has always been proposed within the context of improving the specific impulse of pure rocket propulsion during the initial lower Mach portion of the trajectory. Airbreathing engines have a much lower thrust/ weight ratio than rocket engines (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 10%) which tends to offset the advantage of reduced fuel consumption. Therefore vehicles with airbreathing engines invariably have wings and employ a lifting trajectory in order to reduce the installed thrust requirement and hence the airbreathing engine mass penalty. The combination of wings and airbreathing engines then demands a low flat trajectory (compared to a ballistic rocket trajectory) in order to maximise the installed performance (i.e. (thrust-drag)/fuel flow). This high dynamic pressure trajectory gives rise to one of the drawbacks of an airbreathing approach since the airframe heating and loading are increased during the ascent which ultimately reflects in increased structure mass. However the absolute level of mass growth depends on the relative severity of the ascent as compared with reentry which in turn is mostly dependant on the type of airbreathing engine selected. An a dditional drawback to the low trajectory is increased drag losses particularly since the vehicle loiters longer in the lower atmosphere due to the lower acceleration, offset to some extent by the much reduced gravity loss during the rocket powered ascent. Importantly however, the addition of a set of wings brings more than just performance advantages to airbreathing vehicles. They also give considerably increased abort capability since a properly configured vehicle can remain in stable flight with up to half of its propulsion systems shutdown. Also during reentry the presence of wings reduces the ballistic coefficient thereby reducing the heating and hence thermal protection system mass, whilst simultaneously improving the vehicle lift/drag ratio permitting greater crossrange. The suitability of the following engines to the SSTO launcher role will be discussed since these are representative of the main types presently under study within various organisations world-wide: Liquid Hydrogen/Oxygen rockets Ramjets and Scramjets Turbojets/Turborockets and variants Liquid Air Cycle Engines (LACE) and Air Collection Engines (ACE) Precooled hybrid airbreathing rocket engines (RB545/SABRE) 3.Selection Criteria The selection of an optimum propulsion system involves an assessment of a number of interdependant factors which are listed below. The relative importance of these factors depends on the severity of the mission and the vehicle characteristics. Engine performance Useable Mach number and altitude range. Installed specific impulse. Installed thrust/weight. Performance sensitivity to component level efficiencies. Engine/Airframe integration Effect on airframe layout (Cg/Cp pitch trim structural efficiency). Effect of required engine trajectory (Q and heating) on airframe technology/materials. Technology level Materials/structures/aerothermodynamic and manufacturing technology. Development cost Engine scale and technology level. Complexity and power demand of ground test facilities. Necessity of an X plane research project to precede the main development program. 4.Hydrogen/Oxygen Rocket Engines Hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines achieve a very high thrust/weight ratio (60-80) but relatively low specific impulse (450-475 secs in vacuum) compared with conventional airbreathing engines. Due to the relatively large à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  V needed to reach low earth orbit (approx 9 km/s including gravity and drag losses) in relation to the engine exhaust velocity, SSTO rocket vehicles are characterised by very high mass ratios and low payload fractions. The H2/O2 propellant combination is invariably chosen for SSTO rockets due to its higher performance than other alternatives despite the structural penalties of employing a very low density cryogenic fuel. In order to maximise the specific impulse, high area ratio nozzles are required which inevitably leads to a high chamber pressure cycle in order to give a compact installation and reduce back pressure losses at low altitude. The need to minimise back pressure losses normally results in the selection of some form of altitude compensating nozzle since conventional bell nozzles have high divergence and overexpansion losses when running in a separated condition. The high thrust/weight and low specific impulse of H2/O2 rocket engines favours vertical takeoff wingless vehicles since the wing mass and drag penalty of a lifting trajectory results in a smaller payload than a steep ballistic climb out of the atmosphere. The ascent trajectory is therefore extremely benign (in terms of dynamic pressure and heating) with vehicle material selection determined by re-entry. Relative to airbreathing vehicles a pure rocket vehicle has a higher density (gross take off weight/volume) due to the reduced hydrogen consumption which has a favourable effect on the tankage and thermal protection system mass. In their favour rocket engines represent broadly known (current) technology, are ground testable in simple facilities, functional throughout the whole Mach number range and physically very compact resulting in good engine/airframe integration. Abort capability for an SSTO rocket vehicle would be achieved by arranging a high takeoff thrust/weight ratio (eg: 1.5) and a large number of engines (eg: 10) to permit shutdown of at least two whilst retaining overall vehicle control. From an operational standpoint SSTO rockets will be relatively noisy since the high takeoff mass and thrust/weight ratio results in an installed thrust level up to 10 times higher than a well designed airbreather. Reentry should be relatively straightforward providing the vehicle reenters base first with active cooling of the engine nozzles and the vehicle base. However the maximum lift/drag ratio in this attitude is relatively low (approx 0.25) limiting the maximum achievable crossrange to around 250 km. Having reached a low altitude some of the main engines would be restarted to control the subsonic descent before finally effecting a tailfirst landing on legs. Low crossrange is not a particular problem providing the vehicle operator has adequate time to wait for the orbital plane to cross the landing site. However in the case of a military or commercial operator this could pose a serious operational restriction and is consequently considered to be an undesirable characteristic for a new launch vehicle. In an attempt to increase the crossrange capability some designs attempt nosefirst re-entry of a blunt cone shaped vehicle or alternatively a blended wing/body configuration. This approach potentially increases the lift/drag ratio by reducing the fuselage wave drag and/or increasing the aerodynamic lift generation. However the drawback to this approach is that the nosefirst attitude is aerodynamically unstable since the aft mounted engine package pulls the empty center of gravity a considerable distance behind the hypersonic center of pressure. The resulting pitching moment is difficult to trim without adding nose ballast or large control surfaces projecting from the vehicle base. It is expected that the additional mass of these components is likely to erode the small payload capability of this engine/vehicle combination to the point where it is no longer feasible. Recent advances in materials technology (eg: fibre reinforced plastics and ceramics) have made a big impact on the feasibility of these vehicles. However the payload fraction is still very small at around 1-2% for an Equatorial low Earth orbit falling to as low as 0.25% for a Polar orbit. The low payload fraction is generally perceived to be the main disadvantage of this engine/vehicle combination and has historically prevented the development of such vehicles, since it is felt that a small degree of optimism in the preliminary mass estimates may be concealing the fact that the real payload fraction is negative. One possible route forward to increasing the average specific impulse of rocket vehicles is to employ the atmosphere for both oxidiser and reaction mass for part of the ascent. This is an old idea dating back to the 1950s and revitalised by the emergence of the BAe/Rolls Royce HOTOL project in the 1980s [2]. The following sections will review the main airbreathing engine candidates and trace the design background of precooled hybrid airbreathing rockets. 5.Ramjet and Scramjet Engines A ramjet engine is from a thermodynamic viewpoint a very simple device consisting of an intake, combustion and nozzle system in which the cycle pressure rise is achieved purely by ram compression. Consequently a separate propulsion system is needed to accelerate the vehicle to speeds at which the ramjet can takeover (Mach 1-2). A conventional hydrogen fuelled ramjet with a subsonic combustor is capable of operating up to around Mach 5-6 at which point the limiting effects of dissociation reduce the effective heat addition to the airflow resulting in a rapid loss in nett thrust. The idea behind the scramjet engine is to avoid the dissociation limit by only partially slowing the airstream through the intake system (thereby reducing the static temperature rise) and hence permitting greater useful heat addition in the now supersonic combustor. By this means scramjet engines offer the tantalising prospect of achieving a high specific impulse up to very high Mach numbers. The consequent de crease in the rocket powered à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  V would translate into a large saving in the mass of liquid oxygen required and hence possibly a reduction in launch mass. Although the scramjet is theoretically capable of generating positive nett thrust to a significant fraction of orbital velocity it is unworkable at low supersonic speeds. Therefore it is generally proposed that the internal geometry be reconfigured to function as a conventional ramjet to Mach 5 followed by transition to scramjet mode. A further reduction of the useful speed range of the scramjet results from consideration of the nett vehicle specific impulse ((thrust-drag)/fuel flow) in scramjet mode as compared with rocket mode. This tradeoff shows that it is more effective to shut the scramjet down at Mach 12-15 and continue the remainder of the ascent on pure rocket power. Therefore a scramjet powered launcher would have four main propulsion modes: a low speed accelerator mode to ramjet followed by scramjet and finally rocket mode. The proposed low speed propulsor is often a ducted ejector rocket system employing the scramjet injector struts as both ejector nozzles to entrain air at low speeds and later as the rocket combustion chambers for the final ascent. Whilst the scramjet engine is thermodynamically simple in conception, in engineering practice it is the most complex and technically demanding of all the engine concepts discussed in this paper. To make matters worse many studies including the recent ESA Winged Launcher Concept study have failed to show a positive payload for a scramjet powered SSTO since the fundamental propulsive characteristics of scramjets are poorly suited to the launcher role. The low specific thrust and high specific impulse of scramjets tends to favour a cruise vehicle application flying at fixed Mach number over long distances, especially since this would enable the elimination of most of the variable geometry. Scramjet engines have a relatively low specific thrust (nett thrust/airflow) due to the moderate combustor temperature rise and pressure ratio, and therefore a very large air mass flow is required to give adequate vehicle thrust/weight ratio. However at constant freestream dynamic head the captured air mass flow reduces for a given intake area as speed rises above Mach 1. Consequently the entire vehicle frontal area is needed to serve as an intake at scramjet speeds and similarly the exhaust flow has to be re-expanded back into the original streamtube in order to achieve a reasonable exhaust velocity. However employing the vehicle forebody and aftbody as part of the propulsion system has many disadvantages: The forebody boundary layer (up to 40% of the intake flow) must be carried through the entire shock system with consequent likelihood of upsetting the intake flow stability. The conventional solution of bleeding the boundary layer off would be unacceptable due to the prohibitive momentum drag penalty. The vehicle undersurface must be flat in order to provide a reasonably uniform flowfield for the engine installation. The flattened vehicle cross section is poorly suited to pressurised tankage and has a higher surface area/volume than a circular cross section with knock-on penalties in aeroshell, insulation and structure mass. Since the engine and airframe are physically inseparable little freedom is available to the designer to control the vehicle pitch balance. The single sided intake and nozzle systems positioned underneath the vehicle generate both lift and pitching moments. Since it is necessary to optimise the intake and nozzle system geometry to maximise the engine performance it is extremely unlikely that the vehicle will be pitch balanced over the entire Mach number range. Further it is not clear whether adequate CG movement to trim the vehicle could be achieved by active propellant transfer. Clustering the engines into a compact package underneath the vehicle results in a highly interdependant flowfield. An unexpected failure in one engine with a consequent loss of internal flow is likely to unstart the entire engine installation precipitating a violent change in vehicle pitching moment. In order to focus the intake shock system and generate the correct duct flow areas over the whole Mach range, variable geometry intake/combustor and nozzle surfaces are required. The large variation in flow passage shape forces the adoption of a rectangular engine cross section with flat moving ramps thereby incurring a severe penalty in the pressure vessel mass. Also to maximise the installed engine performance requires a high dynamic pressure trajectory which in combination with the high Mach number imposes severe heating rates on the airframe. Active cooling of significant portions of the airframe will be necessary with further penalties in mass and complexity. Further drawbacks to the scramjet concept are evident in many areas. The nett thrust of a scramjet engine is very sensitive to the intake, combustion and nozzle efficiencies due to the exceptionally poor work ratio of the cycle. Since the exhaust velocity is only slightly greater than the incoming freestream velocity a small reduction in pressure recovery or combustion efficiency is likely to convert a small nett thrust into a small nett drag. This situation might be tolerable if the theoretical methods (CFD codes) and engineering knowledge were on a very solid footing with ample correlation of theory with experiment. However the reality is that the component efficiencies are dependant on the detailed physics of poorly understood areas like flow turbulence, shock wave/boundary layer interactions and boundary layer transition. To exacerbate this deficiency in the underlying physics existing ground test facilities are unable to replicate the flowfield at physically representative sizes , forcing the adoption of expensive flight research vehicles to acquire the necessary data. Scramjet development could only proceed after a lengthy technology program and even then would probably be a risky and expensive project. In 1993 Reaction Engines estimated that a 130 tonne scramjet vehicle development program would cost $25B (at fixed prices) assuming that the program proceeded according to plan. This program would have included two X planes, one devoted to the subsonic handling and low supersonic regime and the other an air dropped scramjet research vehicle to explore the Mach 5-15 regime. 6.Turbojets, Turborockets and Variants In this section are grouped those engines that employ turbocompressors to compress the airflow but without the aid of precoolers. The advantage of cycles that employ onboard work transfer to the airflow is that they are capable of operation from sea level static conditions. This has important performance advantages over engines employing solely ram compression and additionally enables a cheaper development program since the mechanical reliability can be acquired in relatively inexpensive open air ground test facilities. 6.1 Turbojets Turbojets (Fig. 1) exhibit a very rapid thrust decay above about Mach 3 due to the effects of the rising compressor inlet temperature forcing a reduction in both flow and pressure ratio. Compressors must be operated within a stable part of their characteristic bounded by the surge and choke limits. In addition structural considerations impose an upper outlet temperature and spool speed limit. As inlet temperature rises (whilst operating at constant Wà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡T/P and N/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡T) the spool speed and/or outlet temperature limit is rapidly approached. Either way it is necessary to throttle the engine by moving down the running line, in the process reducing both flow and pressure ratio. The consequent reduction in nozzle pressure ratio and mass flow results in a rapid loss in nett thrust. However at Mach 3 the vehicle has received an insufficient boost to make up for the mass penalty of the airbreathing engine. Therefore all these cycles tend to be proposed in conjunction with a subsonic combustion ramjet mode to higher Mach numbers. The turbojet would be isolated from the hot airflow in ramjet mode by blocker doors which allow the airstream to flow around the core engine with small pressure loss. The ramjet mode provides reasonable specific thrust to around Mach 6-7 at which point transition to rocket propulsion is effected. Despite the ramjet extension to the Mach number range the performance of these systems is poor due mainly to their low thrust/weight ratio. An uninstalled turbojet has a thrust/weight ratio of around 10. However this falls to 5 or less when the intake and nozzle systems are added which compares badly with a H2/O2 rocket of 60+. 6.2 Turborocket The turborocket (Fig. 2) cycles represent an attempt to improve on the low thrust/weight of the turbojet and to increase the useful Mach number range. The pure turborocket consists of a low pressure ratio fan driven by an entirely separate turbine employing H2/O2 combustion products. Due to the separate turbine working fluid the matching problems of the turbojet are eased since the compressor can in principle be operated anywhere on its characteristic. By manufacturing the compressor components in a suitable high temperature material (such as reinforced ceramic) it is possible to eliminate the ramjet bypass duct and operate the engine to Mach 5-6 whilst staying within outlet temperature and spool speed limits. In practice this involves operating at reduced nondimensional speed N/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡T and hence pressure ratio. Consequently to avoid choking the compressor outlet guide vanes a low pressure ratio compressor is selected (often only 2 stages) which permits operation over a wider flow range. The turborocket is considerably lighter than a turbojet. However the low cycle pressure ratio reduces the specific thrust at low Mach numbers and in conjunction with the preburner liquid oxygen flow results in a poor specific impulse compared to the turbojet. 6.3 Expander Cycle Turborocket This cycle is a variant of the turborocket whereby the turbine working fluid is replaced by high pressure regeneratively heated hydrogen warmed in a heat exchanger located in the exhaust duct (Fig. 3). Due to heat exchanger metal temperature limitations the combustion process is normally split into two stages (upstream and downstream of the ma- LHLH LOx/LH2 Fig. 1 Turbo-ramjet Engine (with integrated rocket engine). LOx/LH2LH2 LOx/LH2 Fig. 2 Turborocket. LH2LOx/LH2 Fig. 3 Turbo-expander engine. trix) and the turbine entry temperature is quite low at around 950K. This variant exhibits a moderate improvement in specific impulse compared with the pure turborocket due to the elimination of the liquid oxygen flow. However this is achieved at the expense of additional pressure loss in the air ducting and the mass penalty of the heat exchanger. Unfortunately none of the above engines exhibit any performance improvement over a pure rocket approach to the SSTO launcher problem, despite the wide variations in core engine cycle and machinery. This is for the simple reason that the core engine masses are swamped by the much larger masses of the intake and nozzle systems which tend to outweigh the advantage of increased specific impulse. Due to the relatively low pressure ratio ramjet modes of these engines, it is essential to provide an efficient high pressure recovery variable geometry intake and a variable geometry exhaust nozzle. The need for high pressure recovery forces the adoption of 2 dimensional geometry for the intake system due to the requirement to focus multiple oblique shockwaves over a wide mach number range. This results in a very serious mass penalty due to the inefficient pressure vessel cross section and the physically large and complicated moving ramp assembly with its high actuation loads. Similarly the exhaust nozzle geometry must be capable of a wide area ratio variation in order to cope with the widely differing flow conditions (Wà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡T/P and pressure ratio) between transonic and high Mach number flight. A further complication emerges due to the requirement to integrate the rocket engine needed for the later ascent into the airbreathing engine nozzle. This avoids the prohibitive base drag penalty that would result from a separate dead nozzle system as the vehicle attempted to accelerate through transonic. 7. Liquid Air Cycle Engines (LACE) and Air Collection Engines (ACE) Liquid Air Cycle Engines were first proposed by Marquardt in the early 1960s. The simple LACE engine exploits the low temperature and high specific heat of liquid hydrogen in order to liquify the captured airstream in a specially designed condenser (Fig. 4). Following liquifaction the air is relatively easily pumped up to such high pressures that it can be fed into a conventional rocket combustion chamber. The main advantage of this approach is that the airbreathing and rocket propulsion systems can be combined with only a single nozzle required for both modes. This results in a mass saving and a compact installation with efficient base area utilisation. Also the engine is in principle capable of operation from sea level static conditions up to perhaps Mach 6-7. LH2 LO2 Liquid Air Turbopump Fig. 4 Liquid Air Cycle Engine (LACE). The main disadvantage of the LACE engine however is that the fuel consumption is very high (compared to other airbreathing engines) with a specific impulse of only about 800 secs. Condensing the airflow necessitates the removal of the latent heat of vaporisation under isothermal conditions. However the hydrogen coolant is in a supercritical state following compression in the turbopump and absorbs the heat load with an accompanying increase in temperature. Consequently a temperature pinch point occurs within the condenser at around 80K and can only be controlled by increasing the hydrogen flow to several times stoichiometric. The air pressure within the condenser affects the latent heat of vaporisation and the liquifaction temperature and consequently has a strong effect on the fuel/air ratio. However at sea level static conditions of around 1 bar the minimum fuel/air ratio required is about 0.35 (ie: 12 times greater than the stoichiometric ratio of 0.029) assuming that the hydrogen had been compressed to 200 bar. Increasing the air pressure or reducing the hydrogen pump delivery pressure (and temperature) could reduce the fuel/ air ratio to perhaps 0.2 but nevertheless the fuel flow remains very high. At high Mach numbers the fuel flow may need to be increased further, due to heat exchanger metal temperature limitations (exacerbated by hydrogen embrittlement limiting the choice of tube materials). To reduce the fuel flow it is sometimes proposed to employ slush hydrogen and recirculate a portion of the coolant flow back into the tankage. However the handling of slush hydrogen poses difficult technical and operational problems. From a technology standpoint the main challenges of the simple LACE engine are the need to prevent clogging of the condenser by frozen carbon dioxide, argon and water vapour. Also the ability of the condenser to cope with a changing g vector and of designing a scavenge pump to operate with a very low NPSH inlet. Nevertheless performance studies of SSTOs equipped with LACE engines have shown no performance gains due to the inadequate specific impulse in airbreathing mode despite the reasonable thrust/weight ratio and Mach number capability. The Air Collection Engine (ACE) is a more complex variant of the LACE engine in which a liquid oxygen separator is incorporated after the air liquifier. The intention is to takeoff with the main liquid oxygen tanks empty and fill them during the airbreathing ascent thereby possibly reducing the undercarriage mass and installed thrust level. The ACE principal is often proposed for parallel operation with a ramjet main propulsion system. In this variant the hydrogen fuel flow would condense a quantity of air from which the oxygen would be separated before entering the ramjet combustion chamber at a near stoichiometric mixture ratio. The liquid nitrogen from the separator could perform various cooling duties before being fed back into the ramjet airflow to recover the momentum drag. The oxygen separator would be a complex and heavy item since the physical properties of liquid oxygen and nitrogen are very similar. However setting aside the engineering details, the basic thermodynamics of the ACE principal are wholly unsuited to an SSTO launcher. Since a fuel/air mixture ratio of approximately 0.2 is needed to liquify the air and since oxygen is 23.1% of the airflow it is apparent that a roughly equal mass of hydrogen is required to liquify a given mass of oxygen. Therefore there is no saving in the takeoff propellant loading and in reality a severe structure mass penalty due to the increased fuselage volume needed to contain the low density liquid hydrogen. 8. Precooled Hybrid Airbreathing Rocket Engines This last class of engines is specifically formulated for the SSTO propulsion role and combines some of the best features of the previous types whilst simultaneously overcoming their faults. The first engine of this type was the RB545 powerpla

Anastasia Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anastasia   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anastasia, Grand Duchess of Russia, was a very mischievous little girl with a sharp sense of humor (McGuire 18). She was always described as having long fine fingers and baby blue eyes. As she grew older, her personality changed drastically because of her dramatic childhood. Her eyes and fingers remained the same but her wonderful personality had disappeared (Klier and Mingay 193). The daughter of Czar Nicholas II, Anastasia, may have survived the Russian Revolution, but what became of her, baffled historians. Czar Nicholas was the last emperor of Russia and ruled from 1894 until 1917. Throughout his life Nicholas lived within the shadows of his father (Lieven 1). Nicholas took the throne in 1894, he was easily influenced by others and quickly became a poor leader (Pipes 12). Right after Nicholas took the throne he married Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt. Alix became the Grand Duchess of Russia. Her name was changed to Alexandra. Her religion was also changed to Russian Orthodox (King 77). The Czar and Czarina had 5 children. The youngest, Alexis had hemophilia. He was to be the next ruler of Russia, but unfortunately, the day never came (McGuire 31). During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, Russia’s government began to decline. Czar Nicholas went against his advisor’s advice and led the Russians through the battle (Lieven 3). Nicholas was at war and had no idea what was happening in Russia. People were not getting enough food, and as a result became very violent; Worst of all Russia was losing the war (Pipes 65). Alexandra said, â€Å"This is the first time in my life I have no idea how to act. Until now god has shown me the way. Right now tho’ I cannot hear his instructions.† (Klier and Mingay 5). Alexis’s poor heath drastically increased. As a result, his mother had horrible mood swings and became very depressed (McGuire 31). Rasputin, a peasant healer from Siberia freely gave his advice to the Imperial family. â€Å"He came dressed in his crude country boots and caftan, from the start he was strangely at ease with the royal couple. He greeted them like old country cousins.† (Halliday 69). While Nicholas was away, Alexandra became very attached to Rasputin because he had healed Alexis from hemophilia and mended her broken heart. The Czar felt that Rasputin was an authentic voice of... ... no romantic legend. The two Anastasias represent the two faces of the twentieth century. One is a century that really existed, full of war and the slaughter of the innocents. The second is the century we longed to have, peace and family pleasures, and the dreams of any little girl who would close her eyes and become a princess.† People have been trying to find out what really happened to the Imperial Family for 75 years. The secrets of the family are no longer hidden among the dark trees of the Koptiaki forest outside Ekaterinburg (King 379). Many researchers say the real truth died with Anna Manahan. Historians are still baffled today because the bodies of Anastasia and Alexis were never found (McGuire 90). Many historians are still baffled today, and the bodies of Anastasia and Alexis were never found (McGuire 90). The real truth died with Anna Manahan. Biblography McGuire, Leslie. Anastasia; Czarina or Fake?. Minneapolis: Greenhaven Press, 1989. Pipes, Richard. A Concise History of the Russian Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1995. Lieven, Domnic. â€Å"Czar Nicholas II.† Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia. CD ROM. Washington: Bloomsbury Publishing Place, 1999.

The Stand Essay -- essays research papers

The Stand by Stephen King was a very detailed, and engulfing story about a possible end to mankind. This â€Å"extermination† is caused by a man-made variation of the flu that is 100% fatal and spread through the air. It wipes out 99% of the world’s population in a month, leaving around 1 million people in the entire United States. The story is about how the population is split between good and evil and the battle that goes on between the two colonies. The story is presented from many different point of views, because there are around ten to fifteen different main characters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Of all the characters, Harold Lauder is probably the most interesting and developed in the whole story. His personality changes drastically from one extreme to the other throughout the book....

The Mind and Body Connection in Psychology :: essays research papers

When we think of the mind and the body psychologist and historians have provided theories that correlate these two ideas and their functions that make us humans. Without the mind our body cannot fulfill its purposes and without the body our mind is left useless. These two branches influence each other and can cause different chains of reaction to erupt in our mental world [mind] and our physical world [body]. There are relationships between what we experience, (such as thoughts and feelings) and what our biological processes are (such as activity in the nervous system), (Morris, 2005). The link between the mind-body is that they are not separate entities, rather they are intricately connected, interacting with each other to function properly. The five basic issues that psychologist have associated the mind-body with are biological psych (dealing with the nervous system and its function), sensation/perception, consciousness, motivation/emotion, and clinical psych (dealing with disor ders/therapy). These five issues are an uprising principle that relates how the mind-body interacts. In biological psychology we discuss the scientific study of mental processes and behavior, coinciding with the performance of some cognitive activity. In sensation and perception, ?sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. This information is sent to our brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us.? In terms of consciousness we associate that with the state of being awake and aware of what?s going on around you. This is also a quality of the mind which attributes to our attentiveness. When dealing with motivation and emotion, psychologist has defined motivation as the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior, which has a temporal and dynamic state non-related to one?s personality or behavior. Emotion is w hat is described as ?an intense mental state that arises autonomically in the nervous system rather than through conscious effort.? It can evoke a negative or positive response which will correlate in the way we behave. Clinical psychology deals with researching and treating psychological distress, dysfunction or disorder. Psychologists who are focused in this field treat more severe disorders, such as phobias, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. (Rishel, 2000) The nervous system is our ?body's information gatherer, storage center and control system.? It collects information about the external conditions in relation to the body's internal state, to analyze this information, and to initiate appropriate responses to satisfy certain needs (Maintain Homeostasis).

Exploring Physical Activity and Health

Part 1: Health screening and physical activity (1200 words/60 marks)Pre-activity health screening is commonly undertaken in sport and fitness facilities. Scenario 1 (below) shows the results of a pre-activity health screening procedure for a male participant. Read Scenario 1 and then answer the questions underneath.Scenario 1Participant: GregGreg is 55 years old and runs his own company as well as managing a local women’s football team. During a routine health check, Greg was informed that he has high blood pressure and should take steps to address this. Since he stopped playing football himself Greg is currently very inactive and has therefore decided to join the gym at his local sports centre, to help to improve his health and with the intention of becoming fit enough to play in a local veterans’ football league.Health screening questionnaireGreg completed a PAR-Q (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire) and answered ‘no’ to all questions. In other wor ds, Greg had no known medical conditions that could be aggravated by exercise at the time of completing the questionnaire.Health screening – physiological measurementsAfter the PAR-Q was completed, Greg undertook a series of physiological measures. The results of these are:Resting blood pressure = 150/92 mmHgResting heart rate = 85 bpmHeight = 190 cmWeight = 105 kgBody mass index = 29.1Waist-to-hip ratio = 0.99Body fat percentage = 26% 1.Explain the reasons why pre-activity health screening is necessary. (400 words/20 marks) 2.Discuss and analyse Greg’s results. Your analysis should identify whether or not the results fall into healthy ranges and discuss the implications of this, with a particular focus on the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. (400 words/20 marks) 3.Outline how physical activity could have a positive effect on Greg’s health. (400 words/20 marks)Part 2: Health and safety legislation (800 words/40 marks)Read Scenario 2 and then answer the questions underneath.Scenario 2Bradley is a member of the gym at his local sports centre. He regularly uses the gym and has completed a gym induction and health screening. One day he brings his 13-year-old daughter, Jessica, to the health club to use the gym. The health club has a policy that under-16s are not allowed to use the gym and that no one can use the gym without first having a gym induction and health screening. Bradley and Jessica are fully aware of this policy. Although she is 13, Jessica looks much older and could easily be mistaken for being aged over 16. Jessica avoids completing a gym induction by telling the reception staff that she will just be using the swimming pool.While using a piece of gym equipment inappropriately, Jessica falls and breaks her wrist. The gym was supervised by one instructor at the time, whose response to the accident was immediate and appropriate. 1.What legislation governs health and safety in a sports and fitness facility, and how might th ese relate to this incident? (250 words/13 marks) 2.Discuss whether or not Bradley and his 13-year-old daughter, Jessica, would have a case for a claim for negligence against the facility. Explain the reasons for your answer. (550 words/27 marks)

Child Development – Unit 1

Beginners Guide for New Parents â€Å"A taste of things to come† Awareness of child development From birth to adulthood children are all developing. They develop at different rates but all follow the same basic pattern. Physical development starts from the head, and works down the body to the arms and finally the legs. Communication develops from crying to recognizable words and then intelligent conversation. Emotionally children are reliant on their primary caregiver until they develop an awareness of themselves and are able to socialize and function independently. These various strands of development are not made in isolation or sequentially. Development is concurrent and holistic, therefore any deficiency in one area can affect the development in other areas. ————————————————- Pattern of child development Physical development | | 1. 1 a| Infant0 – 12 months| A newborn lies curled up in the fetal position, unable to raise head. Movements are instinctive such as reactions to sound or closing eyes in bright light. 3 months can turn head to look at objects. 6 months child begins to hold up head, keeping it steady for increased periods. Learns to grasp and hold objects, then moves them from one hand to the other at will. Next can pull body to a sitting position and stay upright when aided. 9 months is able to sit unaided. Releases toys by dropping. Uses pincer grip to pick up items. Holds feeding bottle. 12 months as the baby gains more body control it can roll and crawl. | | Early years1 – 3 years| The gross motor skills are developed as the child starts to stand with support. This progresses to standing alone for a couple of seconds. Can walk holding one hand for support. Can walk unaided, run and jump as she develops full control of her limbs. Finer motor skills are developed such as the pincer grip to pick up small objects. Is able to hold a spoon to feed themselves. Learns to hold a crayon to scribble and then draw shapes with. Talks well in sentences, clear enough to be understood. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Learns to eat independently using a knife and fork. Motor skills are developed to the point where a child can walk backwards. They can now walk placing heel to toe and balance themselves on a narrow beam. Manual dexterity now allows them to catch a ball, build structures, and draw shapes. Dress and undress with assistance, then alone. Take turns in play with friends and plays cooperatively. Could be frightened of things like spiders and ghosts. Knows their left from right and how many fingers they have. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| Hormonal changes are responsible for a growth spurt at this time. Gain muscles, but can still appear to lack coordination. Develop large and fine motor skills for use in sports and hobbies. Activity increases and may want to spend more time with peers rather than parents. Noticeable body changes take place, girls develop breasts and boys’ voices change. The growth of underarm and pubic hair is normal at this time. Another indicator of this stage is the development of Acne. Pre teens begin to notice the opposite sex, but prefer to stick with their own gender. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Their own identity emerges in musical taste and clothes. Teenagers frequently have close friendships with their peers. Are often concerned about how they look and what others think of them. Physical changes continue as puberty is ongoing or completed. Children become more independent but still seek advice and guidance from parents. Teens are aware of the opposite sex and may be going out with them. Preoccupied by their own sexualityConflict and a lowered opinion of parents emerge as teenager tries to mature. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| More stable emotionally. Not so concerned about body once puberty ends. Develops clear sexual identity. By the end of this stage both girls and boys will have reached physical maturity. | | Communication and intellectual development | | 1. 1 b| Infant0 – 12 months| A newborn baby cries as their only means of communication. As young babies have no concept of time, to them all needs are urgent, and should be responded to as such. Begins to formulate concepts and is aware of the physical sensation of hunger. Will cry in order to have the need for food met. Develops different cries for a variety of needs, changing, hurting, frightened or lonely. Once they find their voice they will make cooing noises and other sounds. Begins to take an interest in their surroundings, paying attention to toys. Uses voice to communicate feelings, with laughter when playing and screaming when annoyed. Can understand familiar objects and has an expectation of what they will do. Chatters away tunefully and uses voice to attract attention. Watches the actions of those around them with interest. | | Early years1 – 3 years| Will learn 2 or 3 words that will be repeated constantly. Able to make the appropriate response to simple instructions. Goes through a trial and error process to discover what an object does. Can verbally communicate what they need. Is developing an inquiring mind about things and surroundings. Uses own personal jargon with many words unintelligible to most people. Knows the names for different parts of their body. Often repeats the last word spoken by any adult in earshot. Has a growing vocabulary of over 200 words and talks to themselves continuously. Joins 2 or 3 words together to make a sentence. Can use their own name with reference to themselves. Constantly asking questions, with infantile substitution, and can relate past events to the present. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Speech becomes more confident as the substitutions decrease and full fluent speech is achieved. Can count up to twenty using repetition. Ask for the meaning of unfamiliar words. Questioning generally is at its height. Can draw a recognizable house and detailed people. Has a sense of time and can relate to the past, present and future. Able to write their own nameCan match colours and has an understanding of numbers. Reading skills will be developing in this stage and the child might write independently. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| Speech has now developed fully. Reading and writing skills are now being refined. Able to express thoughts and discuss learning making use of language skills. Shares ideas and opinions with peer group. Speech style or jargon is important to fit in with their group. Have a fairly rigid concept of right and wrong. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Will confide more with their peers than their parents. Increased use of speech reduces the amount of acting out. Have a good idea of their favorite sport and subjects and are well motivated in these areas. Fluctuates between considerable maturity and babyness. Can appear secretive at home, talkative but not very communicative. Has a stubborn unwillingness to compromise. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| Thinking about choices to be made regarding further education or career choice. Emerging ability to make independent decisions and able to compromise. Begins to become more self-reliant. Conversation skills are well developed and uses prior knowledge gained. | Social, emotional and behavioural development | | 1. 1 c| Infant0 – 12 months| Creates an attachment bond with mother. Smiles at mother and may squeal with delight. Familiar routines elicit a positive response. Responds to different tones from mother. May become shy in the company of strangers and cling to a familiar adult. Can imitate hand clapping. Understands simple com mands and can wave goodbye. Will cooperate with adult dressing them. | | Early years1 – 3 years| Can demonstrate signs of affection. Will participate in nursery rhymes. Now should be able to help adult with dressing. Indicates when pants are soiled or wet. Becomes emotionally dependent on a familiar adult. Drinks from a cup with both hands. At the end of this stage will gain control of bowels. May throw a tantrum when frustrated. Able to play co-operatively and may have imaginary friends. Tries visibly hard to please. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Child enjoys co-operative and dramatic play, taking turns. Understands the links between co-operation and competition. Can respond rationally to reasoning. Enjoys a degree of independence but still needs reassurance. Can become totally engrossed in activities. Can be concerned about being disliked. Fears develop about things under the bed or ghosts. Now able to form firm friendships. Fairly independent and confident. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| They will develop a select group of friends. Friendships become firm and more settled. They seek more independence in order to solve problems themselves. Need continued praise and encouragement. Increasingly concerned about what others think about them. Will be unsure about changes in their setting. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Body changes can upset self-esteem of children and make them quite vulnerable. As their bodies take on adult characteristics they still feel childlike inside. Will feel pressure from growing up and changing expectations. Some become more assured by changes in their environment. Peer pressure is a significant influence on them. Children want to spend more time with their friends than family. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| As children enter adulthood they are still relatively inexperienced. The peer group losses importance and is replaced by a few close friends. Mature young adults will start to listen to their parents again, asking for advice. As a sense of identity emerges they are no longer afraid to seek counseling. One on one dating becomes important. May embark on a more intimate relationship with someone. | | Different aspects of development can affect one another | | 1. 2| Football| A child needs to be physically developed in order to play this game. They will use gross motor skills to run around and kick the ball. Hand-eye (feet-eye) coordination is also essential as the player needs to be spatially aware of where they are in relation to other things. It is no good have strong legs and great aim if you could not see where the ball was and make a connection. | | | It is not much fun playing this game in isolation. As a team game players need to have the social skills to share the ball by taking it in turns. They have to understand the cooperation factor which is vital in a competitive game. No one person can win a game on their own. | | | This game consists of rules that are available off the pitch, these may be discussed orally or read by individuals. Professional teams are supported and lively banter between children will have them routing for their side. With little instructions or intervention children can communicate with each other to organise themselves into teams and have a very good game. | Language| It is important that babies are spoken to regularly and exposed to a variety of rich language. The more they are talked to the more responsive they will be. The more that they hear, allows them to develop a larger and more varied vocabulary. Research shows that there is a link between early language and literacy skills. Increased reading and writing skills can be the foundation for academ ic and social success in the future. | | | | | ————————————————- Influences that affect children’s development Background | | 2. 1 a| Members of your family are the most important people in your child’s life. This includes siblings, aunts and uncles, cousins or even neighbours and good friends. If all is well in their world the chances are that it will be the same for your child. However things do happen that can have an effect on your child’s development and you may not realize it. If a family member becomes ill or dies this can be an emotionally upsetting time not just for the adults involved, but also for the children who have formed an attachment to them. Some less obvious influences may be the ‘expected’ birth of a sibling; the introduction of a new partner or having to move home or school. You should pay attention to any change in your child’s behaviour and check if their learning is being affected. | | Is your culture the same as the environment you are raising you child in? If not you should consider how these differences will affect your child. When English is not your first language it is helpful to your child if you encourage your child to develop this along side their mother tongue. It is important that children are able to speak, write and understand English so that they can have full access to the curriculum and make progress at the same rate as their peers. | Children are known to be a very expensive to raise and educate. Not all parents have the necessary funds to feed and cloth them adequately, let alone provide for extras. Poverty may be recognized by other children if a child does not have the latest fashion or electronic gadget at home. This may lead to a child being excluded from certain playground groups. It has been reported that children from d eprived circumstances do not usually do well aat school as this impacts on most areas of their development. | | Health | | 2. 1 b| Ill health of a mother or baby immediately after birth can have a profound effect on a child. It is in this very early stage of life that infants need the care of a constant caregiver. Any interruption to this process stops the child’s normal attachment progression. This could then result in a child struggling to form close relationships later in life. A child may be unwell occasionally and need to stay off from school for a few days. There will be cause for concern if this becomes a regular pattern. Any child who misses out on school restricts their developmental opportunities. A child who has a physical impairment is understandably restricted in certain areas, such as ovement in the playground and the social interactions that come with play. Support from adults around them is essential to help ensure they are included wherever possible. | | Growth and weight are primary indicators that are used by professionals to monitor the progress and well being of children. Children of the same age are often different shapes and sizes and there are a number of indicators that ca n explain this. For example boys are often bigger than girl, genetics may be responsible for a boy having a short stature and slight frame, or a poor diet may be responsible for a child being overweight. In all these cases reference to a growth chart may provide answers or explanation for their current development position. A pattern emerges over time for each child and cause for alarm would be if there was a sudden or sharp deviation from the normal pattern. The route for a child who was born prematurely will initially be on a lower path than that of a full term baby however it would be expected to ‘catch up’ over time. Even if this was not the case as long as the child was meeting other development goals this would not be an issue in isolation. | | | | | Environment | | 2. 1 c| Where children live has a marked effect on their social and emotional development. Children that live in a nice, clean, graffiti free, residential area are likely to grow up stress free. They will probably live in a single family residence, in a natural setting, with room to run and exercise their gross motor skills. It is likely that they will know their neighbours giving them opportunities for extended social interactions. High rise dwellings; noise and traffic pollution; overcrowding and access to services, all contribute to levels of psychological distress for many children. This manifests itself indirectly as poor interactions with parents and teachers which culminate in poor language and learning development. | | Children are routinely exposed to noise from cars, airplanes, music and other people. It is essential for children to be able to hear properly in order to learn how to read. However, when they are constantly bombarded with acute noise levels they begin to ignore all auditory input. This defense mechanism has been documented by researchers who recorded significantly reduced reading and speech ability. Children’s cognitive development is also compromised by noise pollution as adults and teachers around them struggle to be heard. Teachers can become annoyed, fatigued and impatient in a loud environment. Their teaching style can become compromised as they lose valuable time dealing with distractions. This indirectly deals another blow to the child chances of developing | | Crowding is another factor that has been noted as having a marked effect on children’s development. This phenomenon can affect the only child as well as those from large families. It comes about when a child is placed in an overcrowded situation over which they feel they have no control. Children may withdraw into themselves as a coping strategy. This may occur in a children’s activity area and result in less constructive and interactive play. Language development can be affect as parents speak less to children in crowded situations. There is also a tendency to speak in simple terms, thereby depriving them of the opportunity to hear and learn more complicated words. | | Importance of recognising and responding to concerns | | 2. | As parents you are in the best position to observe and monitor how your child is developing. Conversely when you feel that there is something wrong you should trust your instincts and don’t be afraid to discuss them with your doctor or health care professional. You might notice that your child never makes eye contact with you; perhaps they fail to respond to your voice; or they display sudden and severe mood changes sev eral times throughout the day. Instead of speculating what might be the problem might be on your own, a proper diagnosis is best. Early intervention will identify any problem and work towards solutions can start straight away if necessary. | | If you recognise that there are external issues affecting your child you should respond to them appropriately. As a parent or carer you could share your concerns with your child’s teacher. This will allow them to be alert to the child’s behaviour and they may be able to monitor their progress more closely for a time. It is also important to disclose changes in the family environment, such as a family break up with changes to living arrangements. As I have already said these may well have an effect on the child that the teacher can be forewarned to deal with. | | In some schools you may have direct access to the Special Education Needs Coordinator or the child can be referred to them via the teacher. It is always a good idea to find out from the school who these people are and what is the procedure to get access to them. If you have this information available before you need it you will be able to act quickly and correctly when concerns arise. | | ————————————————- Transitional stages Experienced by most children| | 3. 1| Being bornMilk to solidsCrawling to walkingBeing fed to feeding themselvesNappies to potty trainedUnaware to aware of selfHome to nursery| Nursery to Primary SchoolPrimary School to Senior SchoolPubertySexual awarenessChanging friendshipsHandling financesGetting a job * | | * Puberty * * You will need to watch out for Puberty, or adolescence as it is sometimes called. This is the natural transition that your child will go through on the way to becoming an adult. Aside from the growth spurt that occurs at this time for both sexes, girls will have their first period, and boys experience their first ‘wet dream’ (nighttime emission) and voice breaking etc. Less physical changes are the physiological, behavioural and relationships. The enormity of these changes may be overwhelming for a child who feels that there is something actually wrong with them but they are too afraid to ask anyone. The stress adolescents feel during these times of change can lead them to try drink or drugs as a coping strategy. Others may experiment with substance abuse or engage in risky sexual behaviour. There are various consequences that can come about from this behaviour such as contracting sexually transmitted diseases; teenage pregnancy or even death from addiction overdose or suicide * | | * These scenarios have been well studied and documented, they are included here not to alarm but to make you aware and equip you with pointers that will help you recognise situations that can be emotionally tough for your child. Stay involved with your child during these transitions and encourage them to talk to you about anything and everything, listen to them without judgment. Does your child feel neglected? Set aside some special time with them to show your interest and this will give you an opportunity to pick up on problems or changes in their behaviour. Prompt your child to talk about their experience or knowledge of different substances and the abuse of them. You have every right to know who your child is friends with and keep track of their movements. Again research has shown that children whose activities are not monitored by their parents are 4 times more likely to use drugs. Any observation of changes or disturbing behaviour should alert you to seek the help of professionals at an early stage. | | Experienced by some children | | 3. 2| A new siblingDomestic violenceBullyingEmotional abuseParents separating/divorcingSerious illness (child/parent)Family member diesUnexpected change of schoolMoving house| Physical/sexual abuseSeparation from familyParent(s) in prisonLooked after by local authorityMarriage (consensual/forced)Learn to driveGoing to universityChange group of friendsCo ming out as gay or lesbian| | * Going to University * * You might think this is great for you and your child. You have encouraged and supported them for years. They have studied hard and beat off stiff competition for a place at the university of their choice. Nevertheless, their departure is a significant milestone for the family as it ushers in a new transition and time of separation that everyone will have to get used to. Unless the family is quite wealthy the stress of financing higher education can have a negative impact on all. The adjustment for students away from home for the first time can have an effect on their mental health. The ‘empty nest’ left behind may give you as parents a feeling of loss as you relinquish some of your parental control. * The impact of university on students gives them a newfound sense of freedom as they are off the radar in terms of parental restrictions and rules. However, they will be confronted by new and different pressures as they take control of their lives. They now have to learn to live with a new ‘family’ and learn how they are now to behave with this new group of people . The opportunity for study is obviously available but so is the list of other things to do and places to go. It can be a time of sensory overload as course work and parties vie for attention. As a parent you should encourage your child to explore new interests, meet new people and discover their new surroundings, with the proviso that getting an education should be the foremost concern. Encourage them to seek out professors or other adults who can keep them focused and grounded. Ensure they know where to turn for help if they do encounter problems whether they are academic or emotional. * * In the midst of students finding their independence and doing fine – you may be in receipt of a tearful phone call. You may try to advise from a distance but this is not always possible. Work out ways to stay connected and involved by doing little things to remind them they are in your thoughts. Sending cards or notes with pictures of events they have missed can help to let them know they are loved and it is not a case of ‘out of sight out of mind’. * | | Affect of transitions on children’s behaviour and development | | 3. 3| At some time children will have to leave the comfort of their home and move on to some form of semi formal or formal education. This might initially be at a playgroup, nursery or reception class. Whichever route they take it is a time of major change for them and the way they handle it should be monitored closely. Children who have been used to one on one attention may struggle with having to share the teacher with the rest of their classmates. However those who have had a secure and happy upbringing will be emotionally mature enough to cope with the change. Children of a more delicate nature may regress in their behaviour and need reassurance to participate. They may suck their thumb for comfort or cling to a favorite toy or object. Sensitive handling of these actions will help them through and build up confidence to a point where learning is not hindered. | | Children who are looked after have been prematurely separated from parents. If this takes place in the formative years it is likely that they will have attachment issues. When this happens a child can become emotionally stuck at the age they were when the separation took place. This can then have a detrimental affect on how they view making attachments with others who are tasked with looking after them. The defense mechanism is now set to I will act up and refuse to engage with you just in case you up and leave me too. Every effort must be made to engage these special children and help them overcome their disadvantaged circumstances. Universities are well aware of the problems faced by students, especially in the first year, and have systems in place to deal with these transitions. | | ———————————————— References If you wish to do some more research or reading on the subject here are some of the books and websites I found useful when writing this booklet. Supporting teaching and learning in schools: Louise Burnham & Brenda Baker, 2010 6 to 16 Child Development: Penny Tassoni, 2007 The effects of the Physical Environment on Children’s Develo pment: Dr Gary Evans http://www. parenting. cit. cornell. edu/documents/Physical-Environment-Evans. pdf www. nhs. co. uk www. pampers. co. uk